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=Critical Periods of Brain Development= //“Brain research clearly illustrates that early childhood experiences are critical to the developing brain. The brain develops rapidly in the earliest years of life and the environment in which it develops can either support or inhibit a child’s emotional, social and intellectual development.” (McDonald, 2007)//

__Prenatal Development__

1. At 4 weeks, neural tubes begin to form that will eventually become the brain and spinal cord.

2. At 7 weeks, the cerebral cortex and other major structures of the brain begin to form.



3. At 11 weeks, cells grow and begin to make connections. Child develops reflexes.



4. At 7 months, the brain begins to resemble a mature brain, and fetal brain waves can be detected. The myelin sheath forms around cells, which keeps them insulated and enhances communication between cells.



5. At 9 months, most of the neurons a child will ever have are in place by this time.



During the prenatal phase of development, a child's brain is particularly susceptible to environmental influences, particularly those things that occur through the mother. According to the Education Commission of the States (2009), "environmental toxins, infection, malnutrition, prenatal exposure to drugs and premature birth are all known to be harmful to the developing brain. Chronic stress caused by abuse or neglect is also known to impede normal brain development." Weaver (2001) also explains that "if a pregnant woman is exposed to certain infections or drugs, developmental disorders can arise as the brain is forming in the fetus" (p.18). The prenatal period of brain development is critical in determining how a child's brain forms and if he or she will face developmental/learning problems later on.

__Ages Birth to Three__

During this period of time, the child's brain creates synapses (these receive nerve impulses and send and receive information). Synapses will become a permanent part of the brain, and those synapses that a child does not use are eliminated--this is known as "pruning" (Gable, 2008). According to the League of Education Voters Foundation (n.d.), "research shows that while the brain is built over time, brain circuits stabilize with age, making them increasingly more difficult to alter." Knowing this, it is important to keep in mind that it is vital for a child to continue to create multiple connections during this time while his or her brain has more plasticity. In addition, many vital functions begin to occur during this time as a child interacts with his or her world. Phillips (2009) explains that "the frontal lobes become active between 6 months and a year old, triggering the development of emotions, attachments, planning, working memory and attention. A sense of self develops as the parietal and frontal lobe circuits become more integrated, at around 18 months..." (p.29). Lack of sensory experiences, parental rejection, or physical abuse can permanently alter the brain during this time, killing brain cells and destroying synapses.

__Ages Four to Eleven__

Synapses continue to form and experiences still play a crucial role in creating connections between brain cells and further developing a child's brain. By age 6, a child's brain is 95% of an adult's brain weight, and by age 11 for girls and 14 for boys, the brain peaks in synapse development (Phillips, 2009). This limits the brain's plasticity and ability to reform or recover synapses that have been lost or under-developed.

=Linking Research to Practice: Implications for Early Childhood Education and Professionals=

__Prenatal Period__

Because this is the period where the brain is developing most rapidly, including the development of the major structures and neurons of the brain, it is important for educators to stress to parents the importance of good prenatal care, limiting drugs and alcohol, and trying to remain as "stress-free" as possible. Research shows that learning can begin as early as 22 weeks, as the fetus begins to suck its thumb and respond to noise; parents can be encouraged to talk to the fetus, or even play music to help stimulate the development of the brain (Phillips).

__Ages Birth to Three__

Warm, nurturing parents are one of the most important factors influencing brain development for this age group. However, educators can play a huge role in affecting a child's quality of life and quality of brain development. Early intervention is key during this age group to head-off (and even reverse) potential learning problems that children may experience because of conditions inherited during the prenatal stage. Hawley and Gunner (2000) explain that:

a new consensus is emerging about the importance of intervening with families of disadvantaged children in the first months and years of life to ensure they provide the kinds of experiences that support optimal development.... Infants and children who are rarely spoken to, who are exposed to few toys, and who have little opportunity to explore and experiment with their environment may fail to fully develop the neural connections and pathways that facilitate later learning. (p.4)

In addition, "studies have shown that a nurturing environment and one-on-one playtime with games like peekaboo, building blocks, singing nursery rhymes and shape-sorting are all a child needs to increase IQ and foster a lifelong interest in learning" (Phillips). Providing children at this age with a rich environment full of educational toys, sensory experiences, motor movement and social connections (whether in the home or the school environment) will increase the likelihood that children will continue to form and connect synapses and will develop a healthy, mature brain.

__Ages Four and Beyond__

An education that promotes "sensory and motor competencies and rudimentary language skills" in preschool and that supports the "nascent reasoning abilities" in the elementary grades helps to stimulate the areas in the brain that are forming synapses and maturing at this time (Consciousness-Based Education Association [2002]). Physical education is also an important part of brain development during this age. According to Jensen (2008), exercise stimulates the creation of new cells, which, in turn, increases memory and capacity to learn. The author also brings up the importance of considering factors such as promoting social stimulation, including art in education, limiting stress, and giving consideration to nutrition as ways to stimulate healthy brain development in children.

__// More Suggestions from Gable (2008) //__  // " * Experiment with different smells in the classroom. Try scents like peppermint and cinnamon to keep children alert and lavender to calm them down. //
 * //*Remember that lighting affect alertness and responsiveness. Bright lights keep infants and toddlers alert; soft lights help infants and toddlers to calm down.//
 * //*Expose infants and toddlers to colors that stimulate the brain. Use colors like pale yellow, beige, and off-white to create a calm learning environment; use bright colors such as red, orange, and yellow to encourage creativity and excitement.//
 * //*Use quiet and soft music to calm infants and toddlers and rhythmic music to get them excited about moving.//
 * //*Create a texture book or board that includes swatches of different fabrics for infants and toddlers to feel.//
 * //*Describe the foods and drinks that you serve infants and toddlers and use words that are associated with flavor and texture ('oranges are sweet and juicy;' 'lemon yogurt is a little sour and creamy')."//

=Evolution of Brain-Based Teaching Over Time=

The following table shows the evolution of how thinking about cognitive development has affected teaching practice. Through time, educators began to realize the significance of considering the effect of brain development on how children learn. More recently, studies have been devoted to determining the effects of cognitive development on very young children and fetuses and how this development affects their abilities to learn. More research has also been devoted to how teachers can work to improve cognitive development through teaching strategies and early intervention.


 * **Time Period/Context** || **Implications for Teaching Practice** ||
 * **Present day: Prenatal/newborn/early childhood conditions affect brain development, which can affect ability to learn.** || **Refining of the practical application of brain-research in the classroom. Early intervention is important; provide parents with research on prenatal care and on how to interact with their children. Environment plays a huge role in brain development.** ||
 * **1990s: “Decade of the Brain:” George Bush headed the enthusiasm for brain-based education (Grobstein, 2007).** || **Concern that educators were too focused on learning terms from neuroscience textbooks than on really deciphering what the research was implying for classroom application (Jensen).** ||
 * **1983: Leslie Hart authored the book //Human Brain, Human Learning// and argued that “cognitive processes were significantly impaired by classroom threat” (Jensen).** || **The social, emotional and physical environment of the classroom affects cognitive development and learning.** ||
 * **1896-1980: Jean Piaget—children have distinct stages of cognitive development in which new skills and abilities to learn emerge.** || **Cognitive developmental approach: cognitive development precedes learning.** ||
 * **Babies’ brains thought to be “essentially complete…[and] genetics determined brain capacity” (Education Commission of the States).** || **Educators thought there was little that could be done to improve cognition.** ||

References:

Consciousness-Based Education Association. (2002). The relationship of brain development to education. Retrieved from: []

Education Commission of the States. (2009). //Brain Research//. Retrieved from: []

Gable, S. (2008). Nature, nurture and early brain development. Retrieved from: []

Grobstein, P. (2007). //Brain and education: Thinking about new directions//. Retrieved from: []

Hawley, T. & Gunner, M. (2000). //Starting smart: How early experiences affect brain development.// Zero to Three & The Ounce of Prevention Fund.

Jensen, E. P. (2008). A fresh look at brain-based education. Retrieved from: []

League of Education Voters Foundation. (n.d.). Brain research. Retrieved from: []

McDonald, A. (2007). //Prenatal development--the Dana guide.// Retrieved from: []

Phillips, H. (2009). The five ages of the brain: 2 Childhood. //New Scientist, 201// (2702), 28-29.

Weaver, D. (2001). //Epilepsy and seizures: Everything you need to know//. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, Inc.