Kathleen+E

__Key Vocabulary__ **  **Neuron** ** – the most basic cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits information  ** (Kail, 2007).
 * Early Childhood Brain Development
 * Cell Body ** – The central part of the neuron that controls biological processes
 * Dendrite ** – The receiving end of the neuron that resembles a tree with branches
 * Axon ** – The structure at opposite end of cell body that resembles a tube and sends information to other neurons
 * Myelin ** – A fatty sheath that is wrapped around the axon that helps it to send information more quickly
 * Terminal Buttons ** – Small knobs that release neurotransmitters that are located at the ends of an axon
 * Neurotransmitters ** - Chemicals that take information from one neuron to another
 * Synapse ** – Spaces between neurons
 * Cerebral cortex ** – Wrinkled surface of the brain that controls brain functions. It is made of 10 billion neurons and contains the left and right hemispheres.
 * Corpus callosum ** – Connects the hemispheres and is made up of a thick bundle of millions of axons.
 * Frontal Cortex ** - Controls personality and ability to make & carry out plans.
 * Left Hemisphere ** - Controls language and computation abilities
 * Right Hemisphere ** – Controls artistic and musical abilities as well as spatial and emotional recognition.




 * __Timeline of Typical Prenatal Brain Development__ **
 * 3 weeks after conception ** - The neural plate is formed by a group a cells.
 * 4 weeks after conception ** – Neural plate forms into a tube that will later be the brain and spinal cord. Later, the ends of the tube will fuse shut and neurons will be produced in a small section inside the tube.
 * 10 weeks after conception ** – Neurons begin to form (Kail, 2007). Neurons develop at a rate of 50,000 to 100,000 per second for approximately the next three months (Woolfolk, 2007).
 * 4 months after conception ** – Myelin begins to form around axons, which continues to happen through adolescence, which is noted by Casaer (as cited in Kail, 2007).
 * 28 weeks after conception ** - The amount of neurons has reached its peak

** __Timeline of Typical Brain Development after Birth__ ** ** At birth ** – 100 to 200 billion neurons Synaptic pruning occurs for areas of the brain controlling sensory and motor functions first. Then, areas impacting language and spatial skills are pruned. The last areas to receive synaptic pruning involve attention and planning, as noted by Casey et al. (as cited in Kail, 2007). ** Experience-expectant ** This process occurs during development in a child’s first years of life. The brain predicts development in part of certain parts of the brain so synapses are preserved. For example, the brain expects visual and auditory stimulation early in a child’s life, so that area will be not be pruned (Woolfolk, 2007). This has a correlation to developmental patterns because if a child is not stimulated in a certain area early in life, then those areas of the brain may have been pruned. This process occurs when an individual is learning. In this process, synapses are formed based on experiences and activity in certain parts of brain. An example is learning a new skill for the first time later in life (Woolfolk, 2007).
 * 1st year ** – Axons and dendrites continue to grow and expand during rapid brain development
 * 2-3 years old ** – Each neuron has 15,000 synapses. In the process of synaptic pruning, inactive synapses will be eliminated and stimulated synapses will be preserved (Woolfolk, 2007).
 * 3-4 years old ** – The prefrontal cortex, which controls emotional impulses, develops during this stage (Berger, 2006) but is not fully functional for two more decades, which is noted Weinberger (as cited in Woolfolk, 2007).
 * 3-6 years old ** - “brain growth has achieved approximately 90% of its total” (Howard, Williams, & Lepper, 2005) and “the brain’s neural network is sprouting most rapidly in the frontal lobes, which enable rational planning (and which continue developing into adolescence and beyond” (Myers, 2007).
 * 6 years old and older ** - The brain continues to develop with the experience-expectant and experience-dependent processes.
 * __Impact of Synaptic Pruning__ **
 * // Pruning and overproduction processes //** :
 * Experience-dependent **

__**Impact of Myelin Development**__ Myelin forms on neurons on neurons carrying sensory information first, and on neurons in the cortex last. More myelin causes increased coordination and reaction (Woolfolk, 2007). This relates to how young children first experience the world through their senses and reflex actions, and then gain coordination and ability to react as they develop. Plasticity refers to the flexibility of the brain. The brain can compensate for damage or deprivation, and can repair itself through therapy (Woolfolk, 2007). The part of the cortex that controls motor skills develops first, then the part that influences the senses such as vision and hearing. The last part of the cortex to develop is the frontal lobe which controls higher-level thinking (Woolfolk, 2007).
 * __Impact of Brain Plasticity__ **
 * __Impact of Cortex Development__ **

Mothers need to have high quality nutrition during pregnancy. Additionally, 50% of a babies diet should be fat to help with the process of myelination. The nutrition of a child most significantly impacts his/her brain development between mid-gestation and two years of age. When children do not receive adequate nutrients, their brains are smaller in size because of “ reduced dendritic growth, reduced myelination, and the production of fewer glia (supporting cells in the brain which continue to form after birth and are responsible for producing myelin)” which causes “lasting behavioral and cognitive deficits, including slower language and fine motor development, lower IQ, and poorer school performance” (Zero to Three, 2009). ** __Critical Periods for Brain Development:__ ** There are critical periods for visual, language, and auditory development, but research has not specified the exact length of these periods. The term 'critical period' refers to the time when it is important for parts of the brain to be stimulated before synaptic pruning takes place and inactive areas are eliminated (as described earlier in the section on synaptic pruning).
 * __Impact of Nutrition__ **
 * Visual Development: ** “ babies also require normal visual input or they may suffer permanent impairment; children born with crossed or "lazy" eyes will fail to develop full acuity and depth perception if the problem is not promptly corrected” (Zero to Three, 2009)
 * Language Development: ** “Language skills depend critically on verbal input (or sign language, for babies with hearing impairments) in the first few years or certain skills, particularly grammar and pronunciation, may be permanently impacted. The critical period for language-learning begins to close around five years of age and ends around puberty” (Zero to Three, 2009).
 * Auditory Development: ** If a child is born completely deaf, and not receiving auditory stimulation, then more attention will be paid to developing other areas of the brain instead that are being stimulated such as areas that influence vision, which was noted by Nelson and Siegler (as cited in Woolfolk, 2007).
 * Other parts of the brain: ** “  We know much less about the development of other mental skills, such as emotional functioning, mathematical ability, or musical skill. If their development is comparable to vision and language, we may expect that some features will be subject to a critical period while others are not” (Zero to Three, 2009).

The first method that was used to explore brain development was observing the effects of brain disorders and injuries (Myers, 2007). Research also used to be done by studying animals, and conducting autopsies. Now using technology, people can do research in a non-invasive way on living humans (Southern Early Childhood Association, 2001). As explained in the timeline below, highly invasive procedures such as lobotomies used to be done to treat neurological and psychiatric problems. Treatments have changed in the present day, with an emphasis on using medications and therapies to help with brain disorders and damage. ** __Changes in Scientific Views about Brain Development__ ** “Scientists once believed that when a baby was born, his or her brain was essentially complete. It was widely held that genetics determined brain capacity and that there was little anyone could do to change it. New brain research has disproved this theory. We now know with certainty that the environment in which a child is raised directly impacts the way the brain develops” (Education Commission of the States, 2009).
 * __Brain Research Methods__ **


 * __Timeline of Brain Research:__ **

** 4000 B.C. - ** The first observations of the effects of the brain were in Sumerian writings
 * 2000 B.C. ** – Trepanation, an early form of brain surgery was practiced on prehistoric people.
 * 450 B.C. ** - Alcmaeon, a Greek surgeon dissected animals to study the brain for the first time.
 * 300 B.C ** . - Herophilus and Erasistarus, prominent Alexandrian biologists dissected a human body and for the first time and studied the brain.
 * 1100-1500 ** – Brain studies were banned by the church, although some studies were still done secretly.


 * 1664 ** - Thomas Willis wrote the first monograph on brain anatomy, focusing on the individual parts of the brain. He introduced the terms ‘neurology’, ‘hemisphere’, ‘lobe’, ‘pyramid’, ‘corpus striatum’, and ‘peduncle’ in his work.

** 1811 ** - Charles Bell, a surgeon, found that the senses connect certain parts of the brain to specific organs. He disproved a former theory that motor and sensory functions were combined.


 * 1862 – ** Paul Broca, a neurological researcher and clinician, found the section of the frontal lobe that controls speech through his work with brain-damaged patients. This section was named Broca’s area.
 * 1874 ** – Carl Wernicke found that damage to a specific area of the brain between the temporal and parietal lobes causes aphasia. This area was named Wernicke’s area.

** 1906 ** - Santiago Ramón y Cajal & Camile Golgi win Noble Prize for studying the function of nerve cells, and identifying their connective processes. (PBS, n.d.) ** 1972 ** - Computerized axial tomography (CAT) was developed, which has been valuable because of its accurate depictions of specific parts of the human body (Howard, Williams, & Lepper, 2005). ** 1974 ** – The Positron Emission Topography (PET) scanner was developed which uses gamma radiation to provide a visual image of the brain’s activity.
 * 1929 ** – Hans Berger uses the first electroencephalograph (EEG) brainwave test, which is still used today in diagnosis and research.
 * 1932 ** - Lord Edgar Adrian & Sir Charles Sherrington win the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work on neurotransmission.
 * 1936 ** – The first lobotomy in the U.S.A is performed by Walter Freeman & James W. Watts, in which the connections between prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain are severed.
 * 1949 ** – Walter Rudolph Hess wins the Noble Prize for his research that demonstrated that the brain is responsible for controlling the internal organs of the body.
 * 1991 ** – Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann win the Noble Prize for their work about how cells communicate with each other.
 * 2000 ** - Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, & Eric Kandel win the Noble Prize for their work on synaptic transmission in the brain, which has implications for research on neurological and psychiatric diseases. (PBS, n.d.)

__**Implications for Early Childhood Professionals from Research on Brain Development**__ Stimulation is crucial in development and in learning, which includes social and physical-sensory stimulation (Woolfolk, 2007). In the past, early childhood professionals did not know that social and physical-sensory stimulation were both important.

Personal relationships help a brain to develop. This is why it is important for young children to form healthy attachments with their caregivers and have opportunities to interact with other children (Council for Exceptional Children, n.d.)

In their research, Cook & Cook found in 2005 that stimulating environments enhance pruning period and increase development of synapses in adulthood (as cited in Woolfolk, 2007). This research has implications for the design of early childhood learning environments. In the past, less attention was paid to the environments in which the students learned, but now there is more emphasis on Universal Design for Learning, for example. This is also supports the need for quality child care programs and early childhood school programs.

Research shows that direct teaching and experiences cause the organization and structure of the brain to change. For example, individuals with deafness who use sign language have different electrical patterns in their brains than those who do not use sign language (Woolfolk, 2007). This relates to how educators in the current day value personalized instruction. In the past, instruction was generalized for an entire class of children. Now, educators know that they can help students with specific learning disabilities or needs to learn particular concepts or skills by designing personalized learning opportunities. These direct experiences can cause the brain of a student to re-organize.

Research by Hallahan & Kauffman in 2006 found that the frontal lobes, basal ganglia, and cerebellums (which impact self-regulation, coordination, and motor control) are smaller on people with ADHD than with than people without ADHD (as cited in Woolfolk, 2007). Therefore, instructors need to be sensitive to the fact that these areas of development may be effected in students who have ADHD.

Anxiety and emotion can interfere with learning. Therefore, supporting the development of self-regulation skills is important (Woolfolk, 2007).

Early childhood professionals should provide information and resources to families about how to receive adequate prenatal care and how to provide high quality nutrition to babies after they are born. ** References: ** = Council for Exceptional Children. (n.d.). Brain Research Sheds New Light on Student Learning, Teaching Strategies, and Disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section Ho me&TEMPLATE/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID6271 =  Education Commission of the States. (2009). Brain Research. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States. Retrieved from [] Howard, Vikki F., Williams, Betty Fry., & Lepper, Cheryl. (2005). //Very Young Children with Special Needs: A Formative Approach for Today’s Children// (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Kail, Robert V. (2007). //Children and Their Development// (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:Pearson Education, Inc. Myers, David G. (2007). //Psychology// (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

PBS. (n.d). History of the Brain. Retrieved from [] Southern Early Childhood Association. (2001). Brain Research and Its Implications for Early Childhood Programs. Retrieved from [] Woolfolk, Anita. (2007). //Educational Psychology// (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Education Inc. Zero to Three. (2009). Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from: []