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If children are nurtured in a positive and active manner and in a beneficial environment, their brains will develop as to allow them to be able to reach their highest potential (Howard, Williams, Lepper 2005). It is imperative to understand how brain development in early childhood progresses and develops because this allows us to understand and identify the stages in a child’s development and if they are progressing typically. We can identify these developmental milestones in all children at approximate ranges of normalcy in development in order to help us understand if the children are developing properly or if there is room for concern (Howard et al. 2005). For example, if a child cannot walk near or by the age of 12-18 months, an appropriate intervention should occur as soon as possible. We should examine brain development in early childhood and understand that some times in early childhood development may be more sensitive than others. This is not to say that all periods of early childhood development are critical and sensitive. It is important to look at the process of brain development in early childhood as it progresses from conception of a child to age 8. These years are developmentally critical years for brain development. Let’s take a look at what we know about supporting healthy brain development within the different stages of brain development:  a)  **__Prenatal Stage__**. (Approximately 38 weeks). After the first 2 weeks of pregnancy, a fertilized egg has attached to the uterus wall. The Embryonic Period (week 3-8) of a pregnancy is a highly sensitive and vulnerable stage in brain development because this is when organ development occurs and the central nervous system develops. Within the Embryonic Period, morphological abnormalities or birth defects may occur (Howard et al. 2005). The next stage, The Fetal Period (weeks 9-38) is most critical within the context of brain development. In the last two months of a child’s time in the womb, their central nervous systems and brain develop rapidly. Prior to birth, the brain or neurological system is the fastest growing of all the major organs. By the time a baby is born, their brain contains over 100 billion neurons—twice as many as a typical adult needs (Graham). This helps every healthy child come into the world with the best chance of having a healthy brain. **What do we know about healthy brain development in the Prenatal stage?** We know that women need to get consistent prenatal care throughout the duration of their pregnancy, take care of their bodies by not in taking harmful substances (i.e. drugs, alcohol and cigarettes), and eating healthy. We know that normal and healthy prenatal brain development is a gateway to normal and healthy brain development in all later stages of childhood. This stage differs from all others because the mother’s choices, ranging from getting constant prenatal medical care to smoking cigarettes, will have a lasting and direct impact on their child’s brain development. We know that this stage is when the brain is  b)  **__Neonatal, Infancy, Toddler Stages (ages 0-3).__** Brain development after birth and is affected by biological traits, physical environments, social interactions and stimulations. This is when our language and speech, balance, motor skills, and reflexes develop largely though stimulation and social interactions. Like in the prenatal stage, rapid brain growth occurs in this stage, especially in the first 12 months (Howard et al. 2005). During the first 12 months, the brains neurons multiply and connect to other neurons to help infants create physical reflexes and increasingly complicated movements (Howard et al. 2005). The myelin sheath also develops to allow for motor skills and visual discrimination abilities (Howard et al. 2005) **What do we know about healthy brain development in the Infancy-Age 3 Stage?** By the end of this stage, a child’s speech should develop to an almost adult-like level and change from babbling to speaking in full sentences (Howard et al. 2005). If children are neglected or mistreated at this stage, developmental delays in brain development will occur and deter from or even prevent normal brain development over time (book). By the time the child is 12 months old, they have they experience the emotions of trust and mistrust (Howard et al. 2005) Consequently, a lack of or proper care or mistreatment in this stage will have a negative effect on brain development in later stages of childhood. Also, due to the fact that children’s motor skills are in a developmental state, we should protect their heads by always using car seats and safety-proofing play areas. His is the stage when head control, shoulder control, trunk control, lower body control, and refinement in motor skills occurs (Howard et al 2005). Children should begin to be exposed to simple daily routines from their caretakers so they develop a sense of trust, thus creating emotional stability which benefits brain development. This sense of trust aides in the ability for a child to have the self control to begin activities such as walking and toilet training (Howard et al. 2005). A child’s binocular vision develops by the time they are 3 year old. Children should get eye exams by age 2 so that a weak or dysfunctional eye does not lose its connection to the brain (Graham).  c)  **__Early Childhood Stage (ages 3-8)__**. By age 3, brain growth has reached 90% of its total size (book 169.). Of course, development is still occurring rapidly and children are soaking up what they see, do and hear like a sponge! By the time a child has reached age 8, they have the brain capacity for complex emotions such as empathy and envy (Graham). Gross and fine motor skills development is still processing and should be becoming much more refined at this stage, **What do we know about healthy brain development in the Early Childhood Stage?** Around age 5, children have twice as many neurons connections or synapses and adults in some areas of the brain and allows for high brain “plasticity” or high ability to learn (Copple and Bredekamp 2009). Because children have the brain capacity for complex emotions they should be taught right from wrong, sharing, rules, and how their behavior affects others. Children should play with children their own age, possibly in a preschool or play group structure. Hopefully, children have been immersed in language since infancy and are learning to read around age 5. Healthy brain development after age 3 should include a steady progression in the development of fine and gross motor skills. A child has the brain capacity to make enormous gains in their speech, vocabulary, and conversational ability in this stage. Children at this stage begin to retain large amounts of information and can discuss the past, future, and present. By the time a child is approximately 5 year olds; they can understand abstract concepts and answer increasingly difficult questions. They have the cognitive abilities to use logic and can view concepts from others perception (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). A child develops self-help skills, can cooperate with others, participates in complex social activities, and has a sense of responsibility (Howard et al 2005). In all stages of development, a child must be cared for emotionally and physically and given a sense of safety. We must let our children learn from life experiences and provide them (and their brains!) with the tools for success in their later childhood and throughout their lives. Our understanding of brain development within the context of early childhood is constantly changing and improving. The study of early childhood brain development is a relatively recent phenomenon as early research dates back only the early 20th century. It is important to note that much of our research is based on observation rather than actual neurological processes. Let’s take a look at some of the notable theorists and how or what they contributed to our understanding on early childhood brain development. Keep in mind that there is a plethora of psychoanalytic and behavioral research on early childhood brain development and more information is being discovered. Sigmund Freud- Freud was a psychologist saw a relationship between childhood experiences and future adult behavior through his study of mentally ill adults and their childhood experiences. According to Freud, at birth we all have an id, or need for pleasure; a superego or need to seek perfection by age 3-6; and an ego to balance our id and superego. Freud also contributed the psychosocial childhood stages theory—that our parents treatment of us in early childhood can lead to a fixation deviance (Howard et al. 2005). Arnold Gesell (1930’s) - Gesell developed the concept that children develop biologically along a relatively predictable timeline—unless a child has “biological Interruptions” that inhibit their developmental milestones (Howard et al. 2005). Erik Erikson (1960’s) - Erikson also studied mentally ill adults on many Native American Reservations. Erikson contributed his “8 Stages of Development” which are 8 levels or crisis’ small children must go through to develop. Any failure or issue at any stage may lead to a “social mal-adaptation” in adulthood (Howard et al. 2005). Some examples of Erikson Stages are: Trust/Mistrust at 12 months and Autonomy Doubt Crisis at age 1-2 years. B.F. Skinner (1950’s) - Skinner was a Behaviorist who thought a child’s environment plays a large part in their development and they are largely influenced by “differential consequences for behavior” in life (Howard et al. 2005). Reinforcement and Punishment shape a child’s behavior. Much of Skinner’s research was through clinical and laboratory research on pigeons and rats. Also much of his work dealt with language development and is still used as a foundation for intervention procedures for children with language issues. Skinner’s work played a large role in the foundations of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). Albert Bandura (1950’s) - Bandura, like Skinner, was a Behaviorist. He did his research on aggressive adolescents and decided that behavior and environment were very much interrelated. Bandura also developed the idea of “Modeling to Learning,” and produced four steps for learning in children: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Howard et al. 2005). Lev Vygotsky (1960’s) - Vygotsky is a Russian theorist who believed children gain knowledge through interactions with others and life experiences. Vygostsky is credited with concepts such as “The Zone of Proximal Development” (the distance of the most difficult task a child can do with help and the easiest task a child can do alone), “Private Speech” (a child’s outer speech that becomes internalized as the age), and “Scaffolding” (a child’s need for assistance from caregivers). Vygostsy believed children should play with peers and be provided with opportunities. Jean Piaget (1960’s)- Piaget was a French theorist and Biologist who was the first theorist to develop the idea that children think differently than adults do. Piaget observed his own children and came up with four stages of intellectual development in children: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operations, and Formal Operations (Howard et al. 2005). John Bowlby (1960’s) - Bowlby is credited with Attachment Theory--that a child’s feelings of attachment to adults provides them with physical security and allows them to explore and learn. A child may have long term consequences if they experience early separation from their mother (Howard et al 2005). Urie Bronfrebrenner (1970’s and 1980’s)- Bronfrebrenner developed the ecological theory that there are reciprocal relationships between individuals, those around them, and their behavior. Bronfrebrenner highlighted four levels or systems that affect us: the Microsystem (family), The Mesosystem (schools, neighborhood), The Exosystem (parent involvement in social settings such as school), Macrosystem (broad societal issues) (Howard et al 2005). E.S. Buchholz (1990’s) - Children need solitude and peace in their lives just as their need social interactions and stimulation (Howard et al. 2005). H.T. Reis (2000’s) - Children need positive feedback and gentle directions to learn and form positive attachments (Howard et al. 2005). Our beliefs concerning brain development have changed over time along with our care giving and best practices. Much of the original theory works can still be used today but have been contributed to with more relevant information. One of the most important factors we know today is that the brain is at its top capacity for learning during the early childhood years. Our increased knowledge in early childhood development should lead to increased public programs for families and children across the United States in intervention, nutrition, education, and care giving. An increase in all children’s cognitive and social development will have a beneficial effect on our nation and the world. The National Association for the Education of Young Children’s (NAEYC) book Developmentally Appropriate Practice, states that new research in cognitive neuroscience shows that children who have safe and healthy environment early childhood will have “dramatic” neurological development (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). The NAEYC also asserts that the first 5-7 years of our lives are sensitive and especially responsive to ant stimulation as the brain is more “malleable” than it will be at any other time in life (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). The field of early childhood education and early childhood intervention is relatively new and is ever evolving. Much research still needs to be done on a cross-cultural basis and on how technology such as television and computers affects a child’s brain development (Howard et al. 2005). Its is important for parents, caregivers and educators to be aware of the miles stones in early childhood development for typical and at-risk children so that early intervention may occur as soon as possible. We should all look to developmental milestones in the five areas of development—cognitive, motor, language, social, and self help—as the foundation of our care and study in childhood brain development. We need to examine all children in a way that includes their families and social networks because all children are a part of a larger environment that directly affects their development. We should concentrate in and develop early childhood programs because the age of early childhood is a critical sensitive period in brain development. A critical sensitive period in brain development is an approximate age or stage in a young child’s growth when their brain is the most susceptible to learning a particular skill, such as speech, or a time most sensitive to becoming negatively affected by a behavior, such as neglect or abuse. Children’s brains need to be stimulated by speech, experiences, constant care, and bonds with caregivers so that they feel safe and loved. Areas of the brain evolve in a predictable progression due to the fact that chemicals that cultivate brain development are released in gradually (Graham). The timing of this phenomenon is why we know there are periods of sensitivity when types of development and learning will most beneficially occur (Graham). For example, in infancy, it has been proven that exposure to speech and language is critical to later intellectual and language development (Graham). This is why it is critical to sing, read, talk to, and stimulate children beginning in infancy! Infancy is an important critical sensitive period in brain development. When children are born their brain contains all the neurons they will have in life (Graham). All neurons contain axons and dendrites, which can be explained in laymen’s terms as “output” and “input” fibers to connect to other neurons (Graham). At birth, many of our neurons are not connected yet and will not become connected unless an infant is stimulated, has healthy experiences, and is loved and nurtured. The “wiring” connections between a child’s numerous neurons occurs through a child’s experiences and develops at a rapid pace until age ten and (Graham). If a child is improperly cared for in a mental or physical manner, the connections of neurons may not occur to the proper extent and their brain will not develop to its maximum potential. It has also been proven that the brain of a child living in an environment of harm or neglect will contain a high level of the hormone cortisol (Graham). Cortisol reduces neural connections in some areas of the brain and may cause brain cells to die. Thus, we must give children our children the nurturance and experiences they need so that they may succeed in later childhood and in life! Please take a moment to watch this video explanation about early brain development from Dr. Jack P. Shonkoff from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child of Harvard University. In this video, Dr. Shonkoff explains how “our brains are prepared to be shaped by experiences.” Video: InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development with Dr. Jack P. Shonkoff. [] Hopefully that explanation by Dr. Shonkoff gave you a useful visual idea of brain development and a further understanding of the importance of positive experiences and social relationship are to children. Dr. Shonkoff mentioned that a socially and emotionally “competent” child is far more likely to be competent in school and in life. This is why we can often look to a child’s early experiences to address areas of concern and a background tool for effective interventions if needed. It is also important to note that a critical sensitive period with regards to academic and informational learning in the kindergarten age of approximately 5 years old (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). This is also an important age because oftentimes effective interventions can best occur. By the time a child in is Kindergarten their brain has reached 90% of its adult size and their brain”undergoes much reshaping and refining…and ‘pruning’ of neural networks that are not being used” (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). Thus, a child who is not stimulated in some areas may lose the capacity or neural networks to prosper in those areas, We must keep in mind that childhood is special and children are all unique and develop differently. All children have different temperaments and come from diverse cultural backgrounds. As educators or simply as individual living in the United States in the 21st century, it is important to be respectful of diversity and how a child’s culture plays a role in their early life experiences. We know the risk factors associated with issues in cognitive, social, and language development in a child’s brain such as poverty, poor nutrition, lack of education, and low socioeconomic status. Importantly, we need to provide affordable or free prenatal care to all pregnant women in the US because good medical care during pregnancy is proven to promote brain development. Women who receive prenatal care have the guidance of medical professionals who can direct them in their pregnancy, screen them for issues, and advise them on how to take care of themselves and their babies. This would prevent many complications and can even prevent many neonatal and postnatal complications. Every child should be given the best opportunity and experiences to promote and experience healthy brain development. The idea that early brain development is critical to success later in life cannot be stressed enough. In the field of education, and especially early childhood education, we can relate many of our studies back to the foundational concept of brain development. This is especially true when we look at intervention and within the field of special education. Human development is often typical and therefore is a reliable tool for creating effective intervention strategies; if we know typical childhood development, we can more easily identify developmental delays (Howard et al 2005). References Graham, Judith. Brain Development. Family Issues Facts. The University of Maine Cooperative Extension (Bulletin #4356). Retrieved from []. The Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University. //In Brief: The Science of Early Childhood Development with Dr. Jack P. Shonkoff.// [Video File] Retrieved From: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iN6wpwZzpzE. Howard, V., Williams, B., & Lepper, C. (2005). Very Young Children with Special Needs: A Formative Approach for Today’s Children (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Copple, Carol, & Bredekamp eds. (2009) Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs: Serving Children from Birth to Age 8 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: The National Association for the Education of Young Children.