Megan+T

** __Brain Development__ **

**

Important Terms:** The **brainstem** is at the base of the skull and it controls most basic life activities, including blood pressure and body temperature. The **midbrain** is at the top of the brainstem and it controls motor activity, appetite and sleep. The cerebellum is behind the brainstem and it coordinates movement and balance. The **limbic** system is in the central part of the brain and it controls emotions, attachment and memory. The **cortex** is the top layer of the brain and is about the depth of two dimes placed on top of each other. The cortex is the "executive branch" of the brain that regulates decision-making and controls thinking, reasoning and language. A **neuron** is a core component of the brain. It is a cell that processes and transmits information.
 * Axons** are part of the neurons that transmits information away from the cell body of a neuron. 

__**How The Brain Works:**__ The brain is a part of a much larger system called the central nervous system. The brain controls many functions including voluntary and involuntary functions. There are several “building blocks” to the human brain. Let’s start with neurons. Neurons are one of the core components to the brain and they with the help of Axons transmit and process information. Every neuron has an axon (usually only one). The axon is an “output” fiber that sends impulses to other neurons. We are born with roughly 100 billions brain cells, but only need about half of that as adults. And as babies our brain is only about one quarter developed. In the first decade of life, a child’s brain forms trillions of connections or synapses. Axons hook up with dendrites, and chemicals called neurotransmitters facilitate the passage of impulses across the resulting synapses. Each individual neuron may be connected to as many as 15,000 other neurons, forming a network of neural pathways that is immensely complex. This elaborate network is sometimes referred to as the brain’s “wiring” or “circuitry.” If they are not used repeatedly, or often enough, they are eliminated. In this way, experience plays a crucial role in “wiring” a young child’s brain.

__**Major Areas of Development Affected By Brain Development**__ • **Gross motor:** using large groups of muscles to sit, stand, walk, run, etc., keeping balance, and changing positions. • **Fine motor:** using hands to be able to eat, draw, dress, play, write, and do many other things. • **Language:** speaking, using body language and gestures, communicating, and understanding what others say. • **Cognitive:** Thinking skills: including learning, understanding, problem-solving, reasoning, and remembering. • **Social:** Interacting with others, having relationships with family, friends, and teachers, cooperating, and responding to the feelings of others.

Key Theorist:

**Erik Erikson**--(June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was a Danish-German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase //identity crisis//. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. ==**Abraham Maslow--(April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. He is noted for his conceptualization of a "hierarchy of human needs", and is considered the founder of humanistic psychology. **== **Jean Piaget**--born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, 9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a Swisspsychologist and philosopher, well known for his pedagogical studies. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called " Genetic Epistemology ."
 * Maria Montesorri-**- (August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician, educator, philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; she is best known for her philosophy and the Montessori method of education of children from birth to adolescence. Her educational method is in use today in a number of public as well as private schools throughout the world.
 * B.F. Skinner**--(March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform, and poet. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. He invented the operant conditioning chamber, innovated his own philosophy of science called //Radical Behaviorism//, and founded his own school of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior. His analysis of human behavior culminated in his work // Verbal Behavior //, which has recently seen enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied settings. He discovered and advanced the //rate of response// as a dependent variable in psychological research. He invented the //cumulative recorder// to measure rate of responding as part of his highly influential work on schedules of reinforcement. In a recent survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. He was a prolific author who published 21 books and 180 articles.
 * Lev Vygotsky**-- was a Soviet psychologist and the founder of cultural-historical psychology.

__**Important Stages In Brain Development:**__
 * Prenatal Brain Development: **

~By the end of the third week of embryonic development, the precursors of the eyes and ears are evident. A primary system for blood circulation is formed, and a rudimentary heart begins to beat. ~The third and fourth week sees the development of the spinal cord, and by the end of the fourth week of gestation, the marginal layer nerve fibres appear and begins to accept fibers of ganglion nerves that are sent in to them from the peripheral ganglia. Once connected, they begin to function. ~By the end of the sixth week the rudimentary development of the five brain vesicles is complete. The cerebral hemispheres have grown and now cover the diencephalon, the mesencephalon and the cerebellum, which has only just begun development. ~By the eighth week, which is the end of the embryonic period, all of the organ systems are established - the blue prints have been laid out - and from this time forward the organ systems will continue to develop and refine. Well defined finger and toe joints are present, and there is visible ossification of the ulna, and radius, the ileum, and of the fibula and tibia. The two halves of the hard palate have been growing toward each other and begin to unite in this week, and any failure to do so correctly by the tenth week may result in a cleft palate. (A congenital fissure in the median line of the palate, often associated with cleft lip. Often occurs as a feature of a syndrome or generalized condition, e.g., diastrophic dwarfism or spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita; its general genetic behavior resembles that of cleft lip).
 * 1st Trimester: **

~ The face now looks much more human, with the eyes having moved from the sides to a more frontal position. The ears are visible and some of the inner structures of the ears, the tympani (ear drums), and vestibular apparatus are now recognizable. At 9 weeks the spinal gallant reflex emerges. ~The commissures of the brain develop during this stage as well. Commissures are the nerve fiber tracts that cross over the midline to connect different parts of the brain. ~Myelination of the nerve fibers begins in the third month, with the first myelination occurring in the cranial nerves that arise from the midbrain and medulla oblongata. The ventricular system (which allows the flow of cerebrospinal fluid throughout the brain and spinal cord) is now largely complete. ~In the fourth month of gestation, the fetus is about 12-13 centimeters in length from crown to rump. This is the beginning of motor function for the new entity, as evidenced in the first bringing of its hands together and turning bodily within the uterus. ~During this month, all the spinal arches will close with cartilage which will later undergo ossification into bone. The commissure known as the corpus collosum is evident and undergoes further growth and refinement. Tonsils are present, and the formation of the genitals takes place. ~By this stage the fetus is now inhaling and exhaling amniotic fluid. All the raw materials are in place and the brain and spinal cord are growing at a rapid rate. At around 18 weeks, the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex emerges. ~The germs of teeth both first and permanent are seen, and the organs of the inner ear form - particularly those of pitch discrimination - the organs of corte. Myelin formation in the spinal cord and dorsal root nerves begins, and further development and refinement of the motor tracts takes place. The spinal gallant reflex emerges during the fifth month and will be needed to assist the fetus in it's exit down the birth canal in 4 months time. ~By the sixth month of pregnancy the fetus will have reached a length of about 255 millimeters (10 inches). Sebaceous glands are evident and lymph glands which will help to protect the fetus from noxious substances from this moment to the end of its days. Up until now the fetus has relied exclusively on mother's anti-bodies for protection from toxins including environmental ones. It is here that the rooting reflex emerges, this reflex will be required for early feeding after birth. ~The cerebral hemispheres now cover the whole top and sides of the brain including the cerebellum. Cerebellar development begins from this moment, but will not be complete until two years after birth. Six distinct layers are now differentiated within the cerebral cortex, and almost all of the neurons within the central nervous system are present by the end of this sixth month of life and neural 'circuitry' continues to develop.
 * 2nd Trimester: **

~The seventh month of gestation witnesses the appearance of many new osseous (bone) formations. The developing fetus is now 305 millimeters long. Sulci and gyri (the convolutions) of the brain are much more in evidence, membranes over the pupils disappears and the eyes open. ~The seventh month is essentially characterized by rapid growth, development and organizational refinement. ~By the eighth month, the fetus will be 405+ millimeters (16+ inches), from crown to heel. During this month of development the fetus will strengthen its body and the nervous system will increase its connections and receive more sensory input, and gain more motor control. ~During the ninth month the fetus will reach 510 millimeters (20 inches) or more. All ossification points are in place, and further refinement of motor and other neuronal connections takes place for the ninth month fetus is usually very active.
 * 3rd Trimester: **

By the end of their third month, most babies: ** • Raise head and chest when lying on stomach • Support upper body with arms when lying on stomach • Push down on legs when feet are placed on a firm surface • Open and shut hands • Bring hands to mouth • Grab and shake hand toys • Follow moving object with eyes • Recognize familiar objects and people at a distance • Start using hands and eyes in coordination • Begin to babble and to imitate some sounds • Smile at the sound of parents' voices • Enjoy playing with other people • May cry when playing stops
 * Postnatal Brain Development: **

**By their first birthday, most babies:** • Sit without assistance • Get into hands-and-knees position • Crawl • Walk holding onto furniture, and possibly a few steps without support • Use pincer grasp (thumb and forefinger) • Say “dada” and “mama” • Use exclamations, such as “oh-oh!” • Try to imitate words • Respond to “no” and simple verbal requests • Use simple gestures, such as shaking head “no” and waving bye-bye • Explore objects in many ways (shaking, banging, throwing, dropping) • Begin to use objects correctly (drinking from cup, brushing hair)

• Walk alone • Pull toys behind them while walking • Carry large toy or several toys while walking • Begin to run • Kick a ball • Climb on and off furniture without help • Walk up and down stairs while holding on to support • Scribble with crayon • Build tower of four blocks or more • Recognize names of familiar people, objects and body parts • Say several single words (by 15 to 18 months) • Use two- to four-word sentences (“want snack”)
 * By their second birthday, most children: **

~walks more like adults, runs, climbs, and stacks, speaks in sentences of to to five words, understands concepts of now, soon, and later, matches pictures to objects, migh tnot share well, follows directions, likes to parallel play.
 * 3-Year-Olds **

~running is more controlled, can brush teeth, comb hair, and wash and dress, uses table utensils, cuts on a line, uses 1500 words, speaks in complete sentences, thinks letterally, takes turns, expresses anger verbally, can feel jealousy, enjoys pretending and has vivid imagination.
 * 4-Year-Olds **

**5-Year-Olds** ~runs in an adult manner. walks tiptoed, can walk a balance beam, jump rpoe, very interested in words and language, uses complex language, hand preference is established, grasps pencil like adult, cuts and pastes simple shapes, knows right from wrong, mimics adults behavior, wants to conform, seeks to play rahter be alone--friends are important!

**__Consequences of Abuse and Neglect on a child’s brain__** “Neurobiological findings show that trauma - physical abuse, sexual abuse and neglect - dramatically affects both the structure and chemistry of the developing brain (Kendell, J., 2002)”. There are several types of abuse a child can experience. Abuse can cause alterations in brain development affecting the child for the rest of his/her life. A child can experience physical, emotional, mental, and sexual abuse which all has lasting effects. Children who experience abuse often have trouble making eye contact, are anxious, show emotional signs, and may have behavioral problems. Abuse can also have lasting cognitive affects, especially if the child does not receive any type of intervention services in the first several years of life.

Implications for Professionals: 
 * It is important to remember that all children develop differently and as educators we need to foster that development and provide multiple means of learning
 * Develop warm caring relationships with children. Allow them to know they are cared for, safe, and loved.
 * Knowing that children's brains are developing well before they are born we need to stay healthy during pregnancy, do not drink alcohol, smoke, or abuse drugs, and maintain and overall healthy lifestyle.
 * Providing opportunities for children to learn and explore through their environment
 * Provide embedded opportunities for learning in a classroom
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 112%; text-align: center;">Ensure that all children have access to the curriculum regardless of their developmental level
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 112%; text-align: center;">

Child Development Video!!! Check it Out! http://video.google.com/ videosearch?q=brain+ development&oe=utf-8&rls=org. mozilla:en-US:official&client= firefox-a&um=1&ie=UTF-8&ei= LTb2SqGXMdPM8QbfzPXzCQ&sa=X& oi=video_result_group&ct= title&resnum=18&ved= 0CFAQqwQwEQ#

<span style="color: #feaf58; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 160%;">Great Informational Resource: http://nccic.acf.hhs.gov/poptopics/brain.html

Destefanis,J., Firchow, N. (2009). Developmental milestones: Ages 3 through 5. Retrieved from http://www.greatschools.net/parenting/social-skills/developmental-milestones-ages-3-through-5.gs?content=724&page=1
 * References:**

Graham, J.,(2008). Brain Development: What We Know About How Children Learn. Family Issues Fact. Retrieved from http://servizi.psice.unibo.it/uploads/luci_pmvnyqvywclswwbnkzaqudhcspqprk.pdf

Google Images (2009)

Kendell, J., (09.24.2002). How child abuse and neglect damage the brain. Boston Globe. Retrieved from http://www.snapnetwork.org/psych_effects/how_abuse_andneglect.htm

Johnson, M. H.,(2001). Functional Brain Development in Humans. Nature Reviews, Vol. 2. Retrieved from http://servizi.psice.unibo.it/uploads/luci_pmvnyqvywclswwbnkzaqudhcspqprk.pdf

Wikipedia (2009)